Russian Empire
|- | align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | Motto|National motto: Rus Invicta |- | align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | Anthem|National anthem: N/A |- | align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | N/A |- |'Region' || European Continent |- |'Capitals' || Moscow (Government) Saint Petersburg (Monarchy) |- |Language|Official languages || Russian |- |'Ethnic Groups' -Russian -Tartars -Ukrainians -Bashkirs -Chuvash -Chechen -Armenians -Other | 79.8% 3.8% 2% 1.2% 1.1% 0.9% 0.8% 10.4% |- | Demonym || Russian |- |Government -Executive -Legislative -Judicial | Tsar and Imperial Ministries The Imperial Assembly Imperial Supreme Court |- |'Historical Dates' -Rurik Dynasty -Kievan Rus' -Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' -GrandDuchy Moscow -Tsardom of Russia -Russian Empire -R.S.F.S.R -U.S.S.R -Neo Roman Empire -2ND Empire | 862 AD 882 AD 1169 AD 1283 AD 1547 AD 1721 AD 7 November 1917 10 December 1922 26 December 1991 8 November 20XX |- |'Population' |Over 1 Billion |- |'Geography' -Area -Highest Point | ???? Mount Elbrus (18,510 ft) |- |'Currency' || Ruble |- | align=center colspan=2 | NS |} Russia, also officially known as the Russian Empire is a country in northern Eurasia. It is considered a Constitutional Empire, although political scientists often debate on whether this is an accurate classification given that power seems to be vested into a single individual from time to time. Russia shares borders with the following countries: Quaon, Draxis, and Yshurak. At one time Russia was by far the largest country in the world, covering more than a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia was also the ninth most populous nation in the world with 142 million people. It extended across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 11 time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has one of the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, and is considered an energy superpower. The nation's history began with that of the East Slavs, who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a noble Viking warrior class and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century and adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal states. The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was Moscow, which served as the main force in the Russian reunification process and independence struggle against the Golden Horde. Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America. Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the Russian Empire to being the largest and leading constituent of the Soviet Union, the world's first constitutionally socialist state and a recognized superpower, that played a decisive role in the allied victory in World War II. The Neo-Roman Empire was founded following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the Second Russian Civil War, a Romanesque civilization playing upon the belief that Moscow was indeed the Third Rome. Under the August Royal Family. The Neo-Roman Empire flourished in Russia for three generations of the Augustus family. However, a revival of Russian culture led to a civil war and a Russian Renaissance during which time to the last August Caesar was removed from power and the Romanov dynasty was restored. The Constitutional Empire of Russia was established out of the ashes of the Neo-Roman Empire and rose to prominence with the help of its first Tsar, Paul Romanov II. It would be Tsar Paul Romanov II who would slowly return to lands of Russia to a more historical state. Most of the power base the Russian Empire stands today as a testament to the efforts of Tsar Paul Romanov II. Russia has one of the world's largest economy by nominal GDP or one of the largest by purchasing power parity, with one of the world's largest nominal military budget. It is one of the world's recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the world's largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Russia is a great power and has a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences, as well as a strong tradition in technology, including such significant achievements as the first human spaceflight. =The Government= The government of the Russian Empire is, by best definition, an absolute monarchy under an autocratic Tsar. According to the Ukase on the Foundation of Imperial Authority and Power, the Russian Empire operates under a political system defined as Imperial Absolutism. Under the definition, it is from the crown where all government authority and power originates. Under these guidelines, it is the Tsar who holds all the powers of government for the Russian Empire. Powers held by any other government branches, ministries, departments, or agencies are granted these powers and authority from the monarchy itself. By which, the monarchy reserves the right to dissolve said power and authority at its own discretion. All laws enacted in the Russian Empire are enacted through royal proclamation or decree, known in Russia has Ukases. *For a complete list of current noble Russian families please see Noble Families of the Russian Empire The Tsar For a complete list of Tsars, see Tsars of the Russia Empire Accordingly to Imperial Absolutism as set into law by the Ukase on the Foundation of Imperial Authority and Power, or simply the Imperial Absolutism Ukase; the Tsar is the absolute monarch and authority of the Russian Empire. According to the Ukase (decree), the Tsar's autocratic powers are virtually limitless, subject to only two limitations (both of which are intended to protect the existing system): the Emperor and his consort must both belong to the Russian Orthodox Church, and he must obey the laws of succession (Pauline Laws) established by Paul I. Through his near limitless power, the Tsar has the power to decree and enact law, determining the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian government, resolve problems on issues in immigration and has the power to grant pardons. The Tsar is also Marshal of the Russian Empire, acting in this title as commander-in-chief status over the Russian military. Tsar's full title: By the Grace of God, Tsar and Autocrat of All the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Białystok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria, Panama, Buenos Aires and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhni Novgorod, Chernigov; Ruler of Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, and all northern territories ; Ruler of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories - hereditary Ruler and Lord of the Circassians and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth. Imperial Council of Ministers The Imperial Council of Ministers is an advisory board for the Emperor, and makes up the administrative body of the executive. Each minister oversees the day-to-day operations of their ministry and its various departments but cannot make policy decisions without the consent of the Tsar, as the monarch has decision/policy making authority. In truth, no one ministry makes decisions, just recommendations to the Tsar who then makes decisions that each minister carries out. The Tsar is the de jure''leader and overseer of the Council however, the Tsar also appoints a Prime Minister who, in many respects, is delegated powers by the Tsar which make them the ''de facto leader. The Prime Minister's primary purpose is to oversee the various ministries and their functions in the name of the Tsar and publish reports to the Tsar on them from time to time. The Prime Minister does not have any decision-making powers. Ministers are appointed by the Tsar and serve in their capacity until dismissed by the Tsar. Typically, the term of office of a Minister runs concurrently with the reign of the Tsar which appointed them. Upon the death of the Tsar, the Ministers in office shall continue to serve until the a new Tsar is crowned. At which point they are either reaffirmed in their position or replaced. There are no limits to how long a individual can act as a Minister within the Tsar's Council. Each Ministry is created by the Tsar and the Tsar reserves the power and authority to create, combine, or disband ministries as they see fit. Once appointed, Minister's have the authority to nominate subordinate employees for their Ministry. Lists of these candidates must be submitted to the Tsar for final approval. * The Ministries of the Imperial Council of Ministers are: **Ministry of Internal Affairs **Ministry of Foreign Affairs **Ministry of the Treasury **Ministry of Defense **Ministry of Justice **Ministry of National Security **Ministry of Energy **Ministry of Interiors **Ministry of Commerce/Labor **Ministry of Health and Human Services **Ministry of Housing and Urban Development **Ministry of Transportation Department **Ministry of Education The Judaical Branch The Judiciary of Russia is defined under the First Judicial Ukase, more formally known as the Ukase on the formation of the Imperial Judiciary, with a hierarchical structure with the Supreme Court of Russia at the apex. The district courts are the primary criminal trial courts, and the regional courts are the primary appellate courts. There are many officers of the court, but the Prosecutor General remains the most powerful component of the Russian judicial system. The judiciary is governed by the Tsar of Russia, primarily through the Ministry of Justice. The Russian Criminal Code (Code of Criminal Procedure) is the prime source of Law of the Russian Empire concerning criminal offences. The Russian Civil Code is the prime source of civil law for the Russian Empire. The Russian Civil Law system descended from Roman Law through Byzantine tradition. The First Judicial Ukase states that the judicial branch is independent of the rest of the Imperial Government, though an Imperial Ukase from the Tsar supersede its authority. There is no usage of precedent, as used in common law legal systems. As such, the law on appeal may depend on the composition of the chamber deciding the appeal. A chamber normally consists of 5 judges, except for the Supreme Court that consists of 7 judges. Without the legal principle of stare decisis, for each case a chamber may come to a different, even contradictory, conclusion, even compared to chambers within the same session. If they come to relatively consistent decisions, 3rd parties in civil law legal systems call this jurisprudence constante. Pursuant to the First Judicial Ukase, the Russian Tsar is the supreme authority of the judiciary, though in practice the Tsar delegates these powers to the Minister of Justice. It is the Minister of Justice, acting within the authority of the Tsar, who appoints judges to the Supreme Court of Russia. Consistent of seven judges, it it is the duty of the Supreme Court Bench to see to the appointment, promotion and dismissal of judges in the lower courts. The Supreme Court is also responsible for administration of the courts, such as selection and training of judicial candidates, working with law institutes, and qualifications of judges and other court officers. These actions of the Supreme Court can, however, be superseded by the Tsar or Minister of Justice in the name of the Tsar. Imperial Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the Russian Empire is a court within the judiciary of Russia and the court of last resort in Russian administrative law, civil law and criminal law cases. It also supervises the work of lower courts. Supreme Court judges are appointed officially by the Tsar, although this power is generally delegated to the Tsar's Minister of Justice. In order to become a judge, a person must be a citizen of Russia, be at least 35 years old, have a legal education, and have at least 10 years of service. The Supreme Court consists of a board of seven judges, known as Supreme Court Justices. The Senior most member of the board is considered chairman, acknowledged as the Chief Justice, and separated from the rest which are referred to as Associate Justices. Plenary sessions of the Supreme Court are held at least once every four months. A plenary session must be attended by all judges of the Supreme Court and the Prosecutor General of Russia. At plenary sessions the Supreme Court studies the judicial decisions of lower courts on various topics and adopts resolutions, which establish recommendations on the interpretation of particular provisions of law for lower courts for uniform application. Russian law does not recognize judicial precedent as a source of law, but courts strictly follow such recommendations. The Academic Consultative Council attached to the Supreme Court of the Russia is a body created in order to assist the Supreme Court in various legal and academic matters. It comprises members of the Supreme Court itself, academics, practicing lawyers, and law enforcement officers. The members of the Academic Consultative Council are nominated by the Supreme Court itself, but are appointed by the Tsar himself or through the Minister of Justice. The Supreme Court of the Russia has original jurisdiction in certain cases. The Supreme Court is also the court of last resort for cases heard in lower courts since it reviews decisions of lower courts. When petition requesting reverse of a decision of a Supreme Court of Subject comes to the Supreme Court it is observed by one of the judges of the Supreme Court. He or she may either submit it to respective Board or decline to do it if they find the decision of a lower court "lawful and well-grounded" (common legal expression in Russian courts). The Supreme Court may either affirm or reverse the decision of a lower court. If it is reversed the Supreme Court either renders its own resolution or provides that the case is to be reheard in lower courts. Other Imperial Departments and Agencies The Okhranka The Okhranka, or Department for Defense of Public Security and Order, is the main domestic security and intelligence agency of the Russian Empire and one of the world's most effective information-gathering organizations. Its main responsibilities are intelligence gathering, counter-intelligence, internal and border security, counter-terrorism, and surveillance. The headquarters of Okhranka are in downtown Moscow. According to the imperial law, Okhranka is considered a military service just like a branch of the Armed Forces. It operates legal and illegal espionage residencies in target countries where the legal resident spy from the Russian embassy, and, if caught, are protected with diplomatic immunity from prosecution; at best, the compromised spy either returns to the Russian Empire or is expelled by the target country government. The illegal resident spies unprotected by diplomatic immunity and works independently of the Russian diplomatic and trade missions. It is believed the Okhranka value illegal spies more than legal spies, because illegals penetrated their targets more easily. Okhranka execute four types of espionage: Political, Economic, Military-strategic, and Disinformation; along with active measures, counter-intelligence and security, and scientific– technological intelligence. The Okhranka is an organization with a military hierarchy and though each local bureau and department has it's own chief of operations, the entire organization is overseen by a senior staff consisting of a Director, two Deputy Directors, and four Senior Advisers. When it was first established, Orkhanka agents personnel were recruited with the organization using the romantic and intellectual allure of th fight against Gasselism and the anti-Dominion Great Patriotic War, themes that were previalant in Russia and elsewhere during the Dominion Wars. It was during this time that Okhranka was able to recruit many idealistic and intelligent individuals that gave to the success of the organization during those years. Though the organization is a bit more secretive and selective when it comes to recruitment, they still seek some of the same individuals they sought during that time period. Okhranka classifies its spies as either agents (intelligence providers) or controllers (intelligence relayers). The false-identity legend assumed by a Russian-born illegal spy was elaborate and either involved the life of a "live double" (participant to the fabrication) or a "dead double" (whose identity is tailored to the spy). The agent then substantiates his or her legend by living it in a foreign country, before emigrating to the target country. The works and trades of spies include stealing and photographing documents, code-names, contacts, targets, and dead letter boxes. Agents may also work as friend of the cause: agents provocateur who infiltrate the target's group to sow dissension, influence policy, and arrange kidnappings and assassinations. Okhranka is responsible for internal security of the Russian Empire, counterespionage, and the fight against organized crime, terrorism, and drug smuggling. Okhranka is also responsible for overseeing border security for the Russian Empire. Okhranka also commands a contingent of Internal Troops, Spetsnaz, and an extensive network of civilian informants. The number of personnel and its budget remain a state secret that the Russian Empire will never release. The Imperial Bank of Russia The Imperial Bank of Russia or the Central Bank of The Russian Empire is the central bank of The Russia. Its functions are described in the Ukase on the creation of the Imperial Bank of Russia, the edict which established the bank and its new regulatory functions. A central bank for the Russian Empire was originally established on 12 June, 1860 on the base of the State Commercial Bank by ukaz of Emperor Alexander II. That bank survived until 1917, when it was replaced by a succession of Soviet central banks. Today's imperial bank was established shortly after the turn of the 21st century. In honor of its historic roots, on the 150th anniversary of the central bank a 5-kilo commemorative gold coin featuring Alexander II was issued last year. Under Russian law, half of the Central Bank's profit has to be channeled into the government's federal budget. According to the Ukase on the creation of the Imperial Bank of Russia, the Bank of Russia is an independent entity, with the primary responsibility of protecting the stability of the national currency, the ruble. It also holds the exclusive right to issue ruble banknotes and coins through the Goznak mint. Its headquarters are in Moscow. In its monetary policy decisions the Russian Central Bank is less independent than many other central banks. Although the Law on the Central Bank states that the central bank performs its duties independently of other state organs, the law also says that the central bank plans and carries out monetary and financial policy in cooperation with the Russian crown. The Central bank annually prepares a basic outline of monetary and financial policy for the following three years, which is submitted to the Tsar for discussion. Its basic assumptions are consistent with the government’s economic forecasts. The central bank's monetary policy tools are listed as follows: Interest rates on Central Bank operations, reserve requirements, open market operations, refinancing of credit organisations, currency interventions, setting of money-supply targets, direct quantitative restrictions, and bond issues. The Bank of Russia is also the main regulator of the banking industry. It is responsible for issuing banking licenses and setting rules of banking operations and accounting standards. The bank serves as a lender of last resort for credit organizations. =The Economy= Russia has a market economy with enormous natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas. Since the turn of the 21st century, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have bolstered economic growth in Russia. The country ended last year with its ninth straight year of growth, averaging 7% annually. Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineral extraction and exports. The average nominal salary in Russia was $640 per month in early last year, up from $480 two years prior. At the end of last year the average nominal monthly wages reached 24,310 RUR, while tax on the income of individuals is payable at the rate of 13% on most incomes. Approximately 13.7% of Russians lived below the national poverty line this year, significantly down from 40% a few years prior. Unemployment in Russia stands at around 6%. The middle class has grown from just 8 million persons at the beginning of the 21st century to 55 million persons today. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad. Since the end of the Dominion Wars, the exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably. Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will be 3.7% in five years. Oil export earnings allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12 billion at the end of the 20th century to $597.3 billion today, making Russia one of the largest foreign exchange reserves in the world. The macroeconomic policy under recent Finance Ministers has proven prudent and sound, with excess income being stored in the Stabilization Fund of Russia. A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted just after the Dominion Wars reduced the tax burden on people and dramatically increased state revenue. Russia has a flat tax rate of 13%. Russia has long be considered by many analysts as being well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry. The economic development of the country has been uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a very large share of the country's GDP. For information on companies within the Russian Empire, please see Companies of the Russian Empire *Industries:complete range of mining and extractive industries producing coal, oil, gas, chemicals, and metals; all forms of machine building from rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles; defense industries including radar, missile production, and advanced electronic components, shipbuilding; road and rail transportation equipment; communications equipment; agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment; electric power generating and transmitting equipment; medical and scientific instruments; consumer durables, textiles, foodstuffs, handicrafts *Natural Resources:wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, many strategic minerals, and timber *Agricultural Resources:grain, sugar beets, sunflower seed, vegetables, fruits, beef, and milk *Imports:machinery and equipment, consumer goods, medicines, meat, sugar, semi-finished metal products *Exports:petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, wood and wood products, metals, chemicals, and a wide variety of civilian and military manufactures Science and Technology Science and technology in Russia blossomed since the Age of Enlightenment, when Peter the Great founded the Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint Petersburg State University, and polymath Mikhail Lomonosov established the Moscow State University, paving the way for a strong native tradition in learning and innovation. In the 19th and 20th centuries the country produced a large number of notable scientists and inventors. The Russian physics school began with Lomonosov who proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the energy conservation law. Russian discoveries and inventions in physics include the electric arc, electrodynamical Lenz's law, space groups of crystals, photoelectric cell, Cherenkov radiation, electron paramagnetic resonance, heterotransistors and 3D holography. Lasers and masers were co-invented by Russian Scientists as well as the idea of tokamak for controlled nuclear fusion. Since the time of Nikolay Lobachevsky (a Copernicus of Geometry who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry), the Russian mathematical school has become one of the most influential in the world. Other notable discoveries from Russia comes the modern stability theory and the Markov chains. In the 20th century Soviet mathematicians, made major contributions to various areas of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with Fields Medal, a most prestigious award in mathematics. Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry. Russia is also credited with the theory of chemical structure, playing a central role in organic chemistry. Russian biologists discovered viruses, the first to experiment with the classical conditioning, and pioneering research of the immune system and probiotics. Many Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés who built the first airliners and modern-type helicopters; help create the modern television system; and notable work on dissipative structures and complex systems. Russian inventions include the arc welding, the knapsack parachute, wand the pressure suit. Russia also pioneered electric lighting, and introduced the first three-phase electric power systems, widely used today. Russia is also credited with the invention of the first commercially viable and mass-produced type of synthetic rubber. The first ternary computer, Setun, was developed in Russia. Russian achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration are traced back to the father of theoretical austronautics. His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program on early stages of the Space Race and beyond. In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched; in 1961 the first successful human trip into space; and many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk performed, the first space exploration rover Lunokhod-1 and the first space station Salyut 1. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher and the only provider of transport for space tourism services. In the 20th century a number of prominent Soviet aerospace engineers designed many hundreds of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number of Construction Bureaus that now constitute the bulk of Russian aircraft production. Famous Russian aircraft include the civilian Tu-series, Su and MiG fighter aircrafts, Ka and Mi-series helicopters; many Russian aircraft models are on the list of most produced aircraft in history. Famous Russian battle tanks include T-34, the best tank design of World War II, and further tanks of T-series, including the most produced tank in history, T-54/55. The AK-47 and AK-74 constitute the most widely used type of assault rifle throughout the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined. With all these achievements, however, since the late Soviet era Russia was lagging behind the West in a number of technologies, mostly those related to energy conservation and consumer goods production. The crisis of 1990-s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science and a brain drain migration from Russia. Since the 2000s, on the wave of a new economic boom from the Second Russian Empire, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government launched a campaign aimed into modernization and innovation. Currently Russia has completed the GLONASS satellite navigation system. The country is developing its own fifth-generation jet fighter and constructing the first serial mobile nuclear plant in the world. In 2010, an economy class hybrid electric car project was introduced that will be mass-produced. Energy In recent years, Russia has frequently been described in the media as an energy superpower. The country has the world's largest natural gas reserves, one of the world's largest oil reserves, and also one of the world's largest coal reserve. Russia is one of the world's leading natural gas exporter and one of the largest natural gas producer, while also one of the largest oil exporter and one of the largest oil producer. Russia is one of the largest electricity producer in the world as well as one of the largest renewable energy producer, the latter due to the well-developed hydroelectricity production in the country. Large cascades of hydropower plants are built in European Russia along big rivers like Volga. Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power and to construct the world's first nuclear power plant. Currently the country is one of the largest nuclear energy producer. The government is rapidly developing, with an aim of increasing the total share of nuclear energy from current 16.9% to 23%. The Russian government plans to allocate 127 billion rubles to a federal program dedicated to the next generation of nuclear energy technology. About 1 trillion rubles is to be allocated from the federal budget to nuclear power and industry development within the next 10 years. Transport Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the TransRussia Railway Corporation, which holds a monopoly. The company accounts for over 3.6% of Russia's GDP and handles 39% of the total freight traffic (including pipelines) and more than 42% of passenger traffic. The total length of common-used railway tracks exceeds 85,500 km and additionally there are more than 30,000 km of industrial non-common carrier lines. Railways in Russia, unlike in the most of the world, use broad gauge of 1,520 mm. As of last year Russia had 933,000 km of roads, of which 755,000 were paved. Some of these make up the Russian imperial motorway system. 102,000 km of inland waterways in Russia mostly go by natural rivers or lakes. In the European part of the country the network of channels connects the basins of major rivers. Russia's capital, Moscow, is sometimes called "the port of the five seas", due to its waterway connections to the Baltic, White, Caspian, Azov and Black Seas. Today, the country owns roughly 1448 merchant marine ships. The world's only fleet of nuclear-powered icebreakers advances the economic exploitation of the Arctic continental shelf of Russia and the development of sea trade through the Northern Sea Route between Europe and East Asia. Russia has 1216 airports, the busiest being Sheremetyevo, Domodedovo, and Vnukovo in Moscow, and Pulkovo in St Petersburg. The total length of runways in Russia exceeds 600,000 km. Typically, major Russian cities have well-developed systems of public transport, with the most common varieties of exploited vehicles being bus, trolleybus and tram. Seven Russian cities, namely Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Samara, Yekaterinburg and Kazan, have undeground metros, while Volgograd features a metrotram. The total length of metros in Russia is 465.4 km. Moscow Metro and Saint Petersburg Metro are the oldest in Russia, opened in 1935 and 1955 respectively. These two are among the fastest and busiest metro systems in the world, and are famous for rich decorations and unique designs of their stations, which is a common tradition on Russian metros and railways. Agriculture The total area of cultivated land in Russia was estimated as 1,237,294 km2 last year, making it among the largest in the world. In the first few years of the 21st century, Russia's agriculture demonstrated steady growth, and the country turned from a grain importer to one of the largest grain exporter. The production of meat has grown from 6,813,000 tonnes at the end of the 20th century to 9,331,000 tonnes in today, and continues to grow. This restoration of agriculture was supported by credit policy of the government, helping both individual farmers and large privatized corporate farms, that once were Soviet kolkhozes and still own the significant share of agricultural land. While large farms concentrate mainly on the production of grain and husbandry products, small private household plots produce most of the country's yield of potatoes, vegetables and fruits. With access to two of the world's oceans—the Atlantic and Arctic—Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the world's fish supply. Both exports and imports of fish and sea products grew significantly in the recent years, reaching correspondingly $2,415 and $2,036 millions. =Demographics= The Russian Empire is a diverse, multi-ethnic society, home to as many as 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. TRussia's population is comparatively large, relatively dense given that the Empire currently only covers European Russia. 73% of the population lives in urban areas while 27% in rural ones. The population declined by 121,400 people, or by -0.085% following the Dominion Wars. However, migration continued to grow after the Dominion Wars by a pace of 2.7% with 281,615 migrants arriving to the Russian Empire, of which 95% came from colonial countries, the vast majority being from the Caribbean. The number of Russian emigrants declined by 16% to 39,508, of which 66% went to Russian West Indies. There are also an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ex-Soviet states in Russia. Roughly 116 million ethnic Russians live in Russia and about 20 million more live in other former republics of the Soviet Union, mostly in Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Language Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages. According to a recent census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with 5.3 million and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers. Russian is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual subjects of Russia the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian. Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken Slavic language. Russian belongs to the Indo-European language family and is one of the living members of the East Slavic languages; the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn). Written examples of Old East Slavic (Old Russian) are attested from the 10th century onward. Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian. Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in the English and Russian languages. Religion Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism are Russia’s traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage." Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia at 16–48% of the population. Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia. 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are a number of smaller Orthodox Churches. The church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture. Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorians, and various Protestants exist. The ancestors of many of today’s Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century. The a recent report on religion in the empire said that approximately 800 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians. According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 12% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. Another 1% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers. It is estimated that Russia is home to some 15–20 million Muslims. However, various sources claimed that there are only 7 to 9 million people who adhere to the Islamic faith in Russia. Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states. Most Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow, Saint Petersburg and western Siberia. Buddhism is traditional for three regions of the Russian Empire: Buryatia, Tuva, and Kalmykia. Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, Yakutia, Chukotka, etc., practice shamanist, pantheistic, and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. Slavs are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian. Turkic speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not. The Russian Orthodox Church The Russian Orthodox Church, the Moscow Patriarchate, and also known as the Orthodox Christian Church of Russia; is a body of Christians who constitute an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Moscow, in communion with the other Eastern Orthodox Churches. The church is often said to be one of the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world, second only to the Roman Orthodox Church, numbering over 135 million members world wide and growing numerically since the fall of the Soviet Union and eventual reemergence of the Russian Empire. Up to 80% of ethnic Russians identify themselves as "Orthodox". According to figures released recently, the Church has 160 dioceses including 30,142 parishes served by 207 bishops, 28,434 priests and 3,625 deacons. There are 788 monasteries, including 386 for men and 402 for women. Administratively, the Church is organized in a hierarchical structure. The lowest level of organization, which normally would be a single church building and its attendees, headed by a priest who acts as Father superior, constitute a parish. All parishes in a geographical region belong to an eparchy (equivalent to a Western diocese). Eparchies are governed by bishops. There are around 130 Russian Orthodox eparchies worldwide. Further, some eparchies are organized into exarchates, or autonomous churches. Currently these include the Orthodox Churches of the West Indies exarchate, Georgian exarchate, and Catalonia exarchate. Smaller eparchies are usually governed by a single bishop. Larger eparchies, exarchates, and autonomous Churches are governed by a Metropolitan archbishop and sometimes also have one or more bishops assigned to them. The highest level of authority in the Church is vested in the Local Council, which comprises all the bishops as well as representatives from the clergy and laypersons. Another organ of power is the Bishops' Council. In the periods between the Councils the highest administrative powers are exercised by the Holy Synod which includes 7 permanent members and is chaired by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Primate of the Moscow Patriarchate. Although the Patriarch of Moscow has extensive powers, unlike the Pope, he does not have direct authority over matters pertaining to faith. Some of the most fundamental issues (such as the ones responsible for the Catholic-Orthodox split) can not be decided even at the level of the Local Council and have to be dealt with by a council of representatives from all Eastern Orthodox Churches. Education The Russian education system is a national system overseen by the Ministry of Education. Attendance is compulsory for 12 years starting at age five, and free meals are served to pupils at primary and secondary levels, where the pupils go to their local school. In international assessments of student performance, Russia has consistently been among the highest scorers worldwide; in recent years Russian 15-year-olds came first in science and second in mathematics and reading literacy, In tertiary education, Russia is ranked number one in the world in enrollment and quality and number two in maths and science education. Education after primary school is divided into vocational and academic systems. In particular, an important difference compared other systems is that there is a national draft which forces youths, 18 years or older, to serve a two year service to the Russian Armed Forces. During their terms of service, soldiers receive a two year trade school degree, that soldiers coming out of the military may use to enter the workforce directly or use to transfer into a college or university. As the trade school is considered a secondary school, the term "tertiary education" refers to institutes of higher learning, or what is generally considered university level elsewhere. Therefore, plain figures for tertiary level enrollment are not internationally comparable. The tertiary level is divided into university and higher vocational school systems, whose diplomas are not mutually interchangeable. Only universities award licentiates and doctorates. Traditionally only university graduates may obtain higher (postgraduate) degrees. Primary and Secondary Education: The educational system in Russia is based on a nine-year comprehensive school, with mandatory attendance. It begins at the age of six or seven and ends at the age of 15-16. Although de jure comprehensive school is undivided, de facto it is divided to lower (ages 7–12) and upper comprehensive school (ages 13–15). In lower the students have a class teacher who teaches most of the subjects in the same classroom. In upper the teaching is done by several teachers in different classrooms. The lower and upper usually are in different school buildings. After graduation from comprehensive school, there is a choice between upper secondary school and vocational school. Secondary level education is not compulsory, but an overwhelming majority attends. Both primary and secondary education is funded by the municipalities, which are supported by the state on the basis of the student numbers in their schools. There are private schools but they are made unattractive by legislation. The founding of a new private comprehensive school requires a political decision by the Council of State. When founded, private schools are given a state grant comparable to that given to a municipal school of the same size. However, even in private schools, the use of tuition fees is strictly prohibited, and any private school must admit all its pupils on the same basis as the corresponding municipal school. In addition, private schools are required to give their students all the social entitlements that are offered to the students of municipal schools. Because of this, existing private comprehensive schools are mostly faith-based schools. However, in major cities, there are a few private upper secondary and vocational schools. Faith-based schools and Independent schools charge large fees. Regardless of whether a school is part of the Government, faith-based or Independent systems, they are required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks of the state. All schools public and private require uniforms, however they differ between public and private institutions as well as by schools. Students in comprehensive and secondary education enjoy a number of social entitlements, the most important of which are school health care and a daily free lunch, which should cover about a third of the daily nutritional need. In addition, comprehensive school pupils are entitled to receive free books and materials and free school trips in the event that they have a long or arduous trip to school. Secondary school students must, however, buy their own books and materials. Upper secondary school prepares students for university, so that all the material taught is "general studies". Vocational school develops vocational competence and as such does not primarily prepare for higher education, although vocational school graduates are formally qualified to enter tertiary education. Thus, unlike Sweden, Finland separates the vocational and general secondary education programs. There is a shortage of, and a corresponding high demand for, secondary vocational diploma-holders in many trades. Upper secondary school, unlike vocational school, concludes with a nationally graded matriculation examination. Passing the test is a de facto prerequisite for further education. The system is designed so that approximately the lowest scoring 5% fails and also 5% get the best grade. The exam allows for a limited degree of specialization in either natural sciences or social sciences. Universities may use the test score in the matriculation examination to accept students. The examination was originally the entrance examination to the University of ENTER RUSSIAN UNIVERSITY HERE, and its high prestige survives to this day. Each May Day, people wear the white cap that is the academic regalia associated with matriculation. Furthermore, matriculation is an important and formal family event, like christening, confirmation, wedding, and funeral. Special programs exist in vocational institutes which either require a matriculation examination, or allow the student to study for the matriculation exam in conjunction with the vocational education. The latter are unpopular, because they equate to going to two schools at the same time and usually take four years. Faith-based and Independent Schools: Most faith-based schools are run by their local parish. Non-Religious, non-government schools are often called Independent schools, and enroll approximately 14% of students. These include schools operated by both religious groups and secular educational philosophies. The majority of Independent schools are religious, with most being Russian Orthodox. Most Faith-based and Independent schools charge high fees. Tertiary Education: There are two sectors in the tertiary education: universities and polytechnics. When recruiting new students, the national matriculation examination and entrance examinations are used as criteria for student selection. The focus for universities is research, and they give a more theoretical education. The polytechnics focus on practical skills and seldom pursue research, but they do engage in industry development projects. For example, physicians are university graduates, whereas basic nurses are polytechnic graduates. (However, universities do award advanced degrees in Nursing Science.) The vocational schools, polytechnics, and universities are governed by the national government. A bachelor's degree takes about three–four years. Depending on the program, this may be the point of graduation, but it is usually only an intermediate step towards the master's degree. A polytechnic degree, on the other hand, takes about 3.5–4.5 years. A degree from a polytechnic is not, however, considered legally equivalent to a lower university degree in the Russian system. Outside of Russia, polytechnic degrees are generally accepted as lower university degrees. Polytechnic-graduated Bachelors are able to continue their studies by applying to Master's degree programs in universities. These take two years in general, but the polytechnic graduates are often required to undertake perhaps a year's worth of additional studies to bring them up to the level of university graduates. After polytechnic graduates have completed three year's work experience in their field, they are also qualified to apply for polytechnic master's degree-programs (lower university degree graduates are qualified also, but with additional studies) which are work-oriented — not academic. The polytechnic Master's degree program takes two years and can be undertaken in conjunction with regular work. Unlike the bachelor's, a master's degree graduate from a polytechnic is considered equivalent to an academic master's graduate in a related field. After the master's, the remaining degrees (Licentiate and Doctor) are available only in universities. The polytechnic master's degree does not qualify its recipient for graduate studies at doctoral level. Attendance is compulsory in primary and secondary schools, but voluntary in universities and polytechnics. Tuition fees are moderate for natives and higher from students outside the Empire. The government offers many payment plans as well as grants and loans that help students pay for their education. In universities, membership in the students' union is compulsory. Students' unions of polytechnics membership is voluntary and does not include special university student health care. Russian students are entitled to a student benefit, which may be revoked if there is a persistent lack of progress in the studies. The benefit is often insufficient and thus students usually work to help fund their studies. Some universities provide professional degrees in such fields as engineering and medicine. They have additional requirements in addition to merely completing the studies, such as demonstrations of competence in practice. The most typical Russian doctoral degree is Doctor of Engineering. Furthermore, universities of technology award the title Doctor of Science, technology, software and there are several branch-specific titles, e.g., in medicine and in social sciences. Public Health Russia, like other countries in Europe, has a system of universal health care largely financed by government through a system of national health insurance. In its many assessment of world health care systems, Russia is found to provide the "best overall health care" in the world. In its latest spending reports, Russia spent 11.2% of GDP on health care, or $3,926 per capita, a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government. Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world on a per capita basis. Every enrollee has a Healthcare smart card. This credit-card-size card only contains a kilobyte of memory that includes provider and patient profiles to identify and reduce Insurance Fraud, overcharges, duplication of services and tests. The physician puts the card into a reader and the patient’s medical history and prescriptions come up on a computer screen. The insurer is billed the medical bill and it is automatically paid. Most general physicians are in private practice but draw their income from the publicly funded insurance funds. These funds have never gained management responsibility. Instead the government has taken responsibility for the financial and operational management of health insurance (by setting premium levels related to income and determining the prices of goods and services refunded). It generally refunds patients 70% of most health care costs, and 100% in case of costly or long-term ailments. Supplemental coverage may be bought from private insurers, most of them nonprofit, mutual insurers. Until recently, social security coverage was restricted to those who contributed to social security (generally, workers or retirees), excluding some poor segments of the population; the government put into place "universal health coverage" and extended the coverage to all those legally resident in Russia. Only about 3.7% of hospital treatment costs are reimbursed through private insurance, but a much higher share of the cost of spectacles and prostheses (21.9%), drugs (18.6%) and dental care (35.9%). There are public hospitals, non-profit independent hospitals (which are linked to the public system), as well as private for-profit hospitals. Average life expectancy at birth is 80 for males and about 88 for females. Health care system: The entire population must pay compulsory health insurance. The insurers are non-profit agencies that annually participate in negotiations with the state regarding the overall funding of health care in Russia. There are three main funds, the largest of which covers 84% of the population and the other two a further 12%. A premium is deducted from all employees' pay automatically. The recent Social Security Funding Act, set the rates for health insurance covering the statutory health care plan at 5.25% on earned income, capital and winnings from gambling and at 3.95% on benefits (pensions and allowances). After paying the doctor's or dentist's fee, a proportion is claimed back. This is around 75 to 80%, but can be as much as 85%. The balance is effectively a co-payment paid by the patient but it can also be recovered if the patient pays a regular premium to a voluntary health insurance scheme. Nationally, about half of such co-payments are paid from VHI insurance and half out of pocket. Under recent rules (the coordinated consultation procedure) General practitioners are more expected to act as "gate keepers" who refer patients to a specialist or a hospital. The incentive is financial in that expenses are reimbursed at lower rates for patients who go directly to a specialist (except for dentists, ophthalmologists, gynecologists and psychiatrists). As costs are born by the patient and then reclaimed, patients have freedom of choice where to receive care. Around 65% of hospital beds in Russia are provided by public hospitals, around 15% by private non-profit organizations, and 20% by for-profit companies. The Minister of Health is a cabinet position in the government of Russia. The health portfolio oversees the healthcare public services and the health insurance part of Social Security. However the Minister sometimes has other portfolios among Work, Pensions, Family, the Elderly, Handicapped people and Women's Rights. In that case, they are assisted by junior Ministers who focus on specific parts of the portfolio. General practitioner: The General Practitioner is responsible for long-term care in a population. This implies prevention, education, care of diseases and traumas that do not require a specialist. They also follow severe diseases day-to-day (between acute crises that require a specialist). They survey epidemics, a legal role (consultation of traumas that can bring compensation, certificates for the practice of a sport, death certificates, certificates for hospitalization without consent in case of mental incapacity), and a role in emergency care (they can be called by the emergency medical service). They often go to a patient's home when the patient cannot come to the consulting room (especially in case of children or old people), and have to contribute to night and week-end duty. Health insurance: Because the model of finance in the Russia health care system is based on a social insurance model, contributions to the scheme are based on income. Prior to reform, contributions were 12.8% of gross earnings levied on the employer and 6.8% levied directly on the employee. The reforms extended the system so that the more wealthy with capital income (and not just those with income from employment) also had to contribute, since when the 6.8% figure has dropped to 0.75% of earned income. In its place a wider levy based on total income has been introduced, gambling taxes are now redirected towards health care and recipients of social benefits also must contribute. Because the insurance is compulsory, the system can effectively be thought to be financed by taxation rather than traditional insurance (as typified by auto or home insurance, where risk levels determine premiums). The founders of the Russia social security system aimed to create a single system guaranteeing uniform rights for all. However, there was much opposition from certain socio-professional groups who already benefited from the previous insurance coverage that had more favorable terms. These people were allowed to keep their own systems. Today, 95% of the population are covered by 3 main schemes. One for commerce and industry workers and their families, another for agricultural workers and lastly the national insurance fund for self-employed non-agricultural workers. All working people are required to pay a portion of their income to a health insurance fund, which mutualised the risk of illness, and which reimbursed medical expenses at varying rates. Children and spouses of insured people were eligible for benefits, as well. Each fund was free to manage its own budget and reimburse medical expenses at the rate it saw fit. The government has two responsibilities in this system. The first government responsibility is the fixing of the rate at which medical expenses should be negotiated, and it does this in two ways: The Ministry of Health directly negotiates prices of medicine with the manufacturers, based on the average price of sale observed in neighboring countries. A board of doctors and experts decides if the medicine provides a valuable enough medical benefit to be reimbursed (note that most medicine is reimbursed, including homeopathy). In parallel, the government fixes the reimbursement rate for medical services: this means that a doctor is free to charge the fee that he wishes for a consultation or an examination, but the social security system will only reimburse it at a pre-set rate. These tariffs are set annually through negotiation with doctors' representative organisations. The second government responsibility is oversight of the health-insurance funds, to ensure that they are correctly managing the sums they receive, and to ensure oversight of the public hospital network. Today, this system is more-or-less intact. All citizens of Russia are covered by one of these mandatory programs, which continue to be funded by worker participation. However, a number of major changes have been introduced. Firstly, the different health-care funds (there are five : General, Independent, Agricultural, Student, Public Servants) now all reimburse at the same rate. Secondly, the government now provides health care to those who are not covered by a mandatory regime (those who have never worked and who are not students, meaning the very rich or the very poor). This regime, unlike the worker-financed ones, is financed via general taxation and reimburses at a higher rate than the profession-based system for those who cannot afford to make up the difference. Finally, to counter the rise in health-care costs, the government has installed two plans which require insured people to declare a referring doctor in order to be fully reimbursed for specialist visits, and which installed a mandatory co-pay of about $1.45 for a doctor visit, about 80 ¢ for each box of medicine prescribed, and a fee of $20–25 per day for hospital stays and for expensive procedures. An important element of the Russian insurance system is solidarity : the more ill a person becomes, the less they pay. This means that for people with serious or chronic illnesses, the insurance system reimburses them 100 % of expenses, and waives their co-pay charges. Finally, for fees that the mandatory system does not cover, there is a large range of private complementary insurance plans available. The market for these programs is very competitive, and often subsidised by the employer, which means that premiums are usually modest. 85% of Russian people benefit from complementary private health insurance. Quality: A government body, The National Agency for Accreditation and Health Care Evaluation, is responsible for issuing recommendations and practice guidelines. There are recommendations on clinical practice, relating to the diagnosis, treatment and supervision of certain conditions, and in some cases, to the evaluation of reimbursement arrangements. NAAHCE also publishes practice guidelines which are recommendations on good practice that doctors are required to follow according to the terms of agreements signed between their professional representatives and the health insurance funds. There are also recommendations regarding drug prescriptions, and to a lesser extent, the prescription or provision of medical examination. By law, doctors must maintain their professional knowledge with ongoing professional education. Emergency medicine: Ambulatory care includes care by general practitioners who are largely self employed and mostly work alone, although about a third of all GPs work in a group practice. GPs do not exercise gatekeeper functions in the Russian medical system and people can see any registered medical practitioner of choice including specialists. Thus ambulatory care can take place in many settings. Hospitals: About 62 per cent of Russian hospital capacity is met by publicly owned and managed hospitals. The remaining capacity is split evenly (18% each) between the non-profit sector hospitals (which are linked to the public sector and which tend to be owned by foundations, religious organizations or mutual insurance associations) and by the for-profit institutions. =Crime and Law Enforcement= Crime in Russia is present in various forms and organized crime include drug trafficking, money laundering, human trafficking, extortion, murder for hire, fraud etc. Many criminal operations engage in corruption, black marketeering, terrorism, abduction etc. Other forms of crime perpetrated by criminal groups are arms trafficking, export of contraband oil and metals, and smuggling of radioactive substances. Comparison of the crime rates of the Soviet Union with those of other nations is considered difficult, because the Soviet Union did not publish comprehensive crime statistics. According to Western experts, robberies, homicide and other violent crimes were less prevalent in the Soviet Union than elsewhere because the Soviet Union had a larger police force, strict gun controls, and had a low occurrence of drug abuse. However, white-collar crime was prevalent in the Soviet system. Corruption in the form of bribery was common, primarily due to the paucity of goods and services on the open market. Theft of state property by state employees was also common. When Mikhail Gorbachev was the General Secretary of the CPSU, an effort was made to stop white-collar crime. Revelations of corruption scandals involving high-level employees of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union were published regularly in the news media of the Soviet Union, and many arrests and prosecutions resulted from such discoveries. The crime rate in Russia sharply increased during the late 1980s. The fall of Marxist-Leninist governments in Eastern Europe had tremendous influence on the political economy of organized crime. The collapse of the Soviet Union destroyed much of the systems and infrastructures that provided social security and a minimal standard of living for the population, and law and order across the country broke down resulting in outbreak of crime. Due to these factors, economic instability increased and a newly impoverished population emerged, accompanied by unemployment and unpaid wages. Extreme poverty as well as unpaid wages resulted in an increase in theft and counterfeiting. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, organized criminal groups in Russia have been involved in different illegal activities such as drug trafficking, arms trafficking, car theft, human trafficking and money laundering being the most common. The internationalization of the Russian Mafia played a vital role in the development of transnational crime involving Russia. In the 1990s, the number of both officially reported crimes and the overall crime rate increased by 27%. By the early 1990s, theft, burglary, and other property crimes accounted for nearly two-thirds of all crime in the country. There was a rapid growth of violent crime, including homicides. However, since the beginning of the 2000s (decade) and the emergence of the Second Russian Empire, the Imperial government has taken it upon itself to reduce crime in the country. A stronger police force, better economy, and more funding for social programs have aided a sharp decline in criminal activity in the Russian Empire. Imperial Russian Police Force The police (Russian: Politsiya) is the central law enforcement body in Russia, operating under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. It was established to replace the militsiya (militia), that were operating under authorization at the local levels of government. The new police force operates according to the Ukase on the Law on police, which was approved and delivered to the Empire by Ivan Alexeovich Romanov VIII, acting as regent to the Empire during the reign of his father Tsar Alexei Paulovich Romanov II. The reform was apart of a larger set of reforms which transitioned the Empire towards Imperial Absolutism. The Russian Red Mafia The Russian mafia (Russian: russkaya mafiya) is a term used to refer to the collective of various organized crime syndicates originating in the former Soviet Union. Although not a singular criminal organization, most of the individual groups, known as Bratva ("brotherhood") or Vorovskoy mir ("thief in law, world"), share similar goals and organizational structures that define them as part of the loose overall association. Organized crime in Russia began in its imperial period of Tsars, but it wasn't until the Soviet era that vory v zakone ("thieves-in-law") emerged as leaders of prison groups in gulags (labor camps), and the Thieves' Code became more defined. After World War II, the death of Joseph Stalin, and the fall of the Soviet Union, more gangs emerged in a flourishing black market, exploiting the unstable governments of the former Republics, and at its highest point, even controlling as much as two-thirds of the Russian economy. In modern times, there are as many as 6,000 different groups, with over 200 of them having a global reach. Criminals of these various groups are either former prison members, corrupt Communist officials and business leaders, people with ethnic ties, or people from the same region with shared criminal experiences and leaders. However, the existence of such groups has been debatable. The head of the Russian National Central Bureau of Interpol has stated, "Certainly, there is crime involving our former compatriots abroad, but there is no data suggesting that an organized structure of criminal groups comprising former Russians exists abroad", while many European criminologist have said that it "is one of the best structured criminal organisations in Europe, with a quasi-military operation. In response to these violent crime groups, the Empire has taken increased steps to slow their growth although admittedly, these countermeasures have only shown marginal success. As the result, while there is increased pressure put on the criminal world from the Tsar and his government, the certain groups within the Russian Mafia continue to flourish in many enterprises along the black market. For information on the Red Mafia and information on individual mafia gangs and families, please see The Russian Mafia Category:The Russian Empire Category:European Continent